Evaluating the Role of Circular Economy in Climate Resilience of Informal Settlements Mediated by Institutional, Social, and Infrastructural Factors: A case study of Mashhad city

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

Department of Geography, Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran

Abstract

A B S T R A C T
The expansion of informal settlements in Mashhad and their increasing vulnerability to climate hazards necessitate a rethinking of resilience patterns. Circular economy, emphasizing resource optimization and waste reduction, holds potential for enhancing this climate resilience. This study aims to assess the role of circular economy components in the climate resilience of informal settlements and investigate the mediating role of institutional, social, and infrastructural factors. Quantitative data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire administered to 398 households in informal settlements of Mashhad through multistage cluster-random sampling and analyzed using SmartPLS. Qualitative data were gathered from 18 semi-structured interviews with local experts and analyzed using thematic analysis. Circular economy had a positive and significant effect on climate resilience both directly (β=0.31, p<0.001) and through the mediating variables. Circular economy significantly influenced institutional capacity (β=0.47), environmental awareness (β=0.52), and local infrastructure (β=0.44) (p<0.001 for all). These three mediating variables affected climate resilience with coefficients of 0.21, 0.29, and 0.26, respectively. The total effect of circular economy on climate resilience was 0.674, and the sum of indirect effects (0.364) exceeded its direct effect. Informal social networks, material reuse, and local self-organization mechanisms played key roles in strengthening this relationship. Circular economy operates as an adaptive and spontaneous mechanism in informal contexts and can enhance climate resilience even under conditions of weak formal support. This underscores the need for policymakers to pay attention to endogenous capacities and indigenous patterns in urban management and climate planning.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The rapid expansion of informal settlements in developing countries presents a major challenge to 21st-century urbanization. These settlements, characterized by inadequate infrastructure, insecure land tenure, and poor housing, are highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Meanwhile, the linear "take-make-dispose" economy in the construction sector drives resource depletion, waste, and emissions. The circular economy (CE) paradigm, based on reuse, recycling, and material efficiency, offers potential to enhance urban sustainability. Climate resilience refers to the capacity of systems and communities to absorb, recover from, and adapt to climate shocks. In informal settlements, resilience often relies on social capital, local knowledge, and self-help practices rather than formal support. However, existing literature largely separates CE (focused on formal industries) from informal settlement studies (focused on poverty and vulnerability). This study addresses this gap by investigating the role of CE practices in enhancing climate resilience in Mashhad, Iran, where informal settlements house about 30% of the population. The central hypothesis is that CE principles positively affect climate resilience, mediated by institutional capacity, environmental awareness, and local infrastructure.
 
Methodology
This study employed a sequential mixed-methods explanatory design. The conceptual model positions Circular Economy as the exogenous variable, Climate Resilience as the endogenous variable, and three mediating variables: Institutional Capacity, Environmental Awareness, and Local Infrastructure. The quantitative phase surveyed households in Mashhad's eight informal settlement zones (67 neighborhoods). Using Cochran's formula (95% confidence, 5% error margin), 398 valid responses were collected via multi-stage cluster-random sampling. A researcher-developed 63-item questionnaire (five-point Likert scale) measured CE practices, mediators, and climate resilience. Data were analyzed using SPSS 26 and SmartPLS 4 for PLS-SEM. The qualitative phase included 18 semi-structured interviews with local experts (urban planners, municipal managers, informal recyclers, long-term residents) selected purposively until saturation. Thematic analysis with open, axial, and selective coding was applied. Validity was confirmed by an expert panel; reliability was established with Cronbach's Alpha >0.87 and CR >0.7. Convergent validity (AVE >0.5) and discriminant validity (Fornell-Larcker) were also confirmed.
 
Results and Discussion
Respondents were predominantly low to middle-income households. Mean CE practice score was 3.41, confirming empirical presence. Local Infrastructure scored lowest (2.94), indicating formal facility deficits. Structural equation modeling supported all hypotheses. The direct path from CE to Climate Resilience was positive and significant (β=0.31, p<0.001). CE significantly affected Institutional Capacity (β=0.47), Environmental Awareness (β=0.52), and Local Infrastructure (β=0.44). Each mediator positively affected Climate Resilience (β=0.21, 0.29, and 0.26, respectively). The total effect of CE on resilience was 0.674, with indirect effects sum (0.364) exceeding the direct effect, highlighting strong mediation. Qualitative findings explained these relationships: CE operates as a survival and adaptation strategy through reuse of bricks and steel, local material exchange networks, and self-organized waste management. Despite weak formal support, local trust networks and experiential climate knowledge foster adaptive behaviors. Triangulation shows that informal, community-driven circular practices significantly enhance climate resilience, especially with minimal institutional coordination, place-based awareness, and basic infrastructure.
 
Conclusion
CE, framed as a spatial-social framework, substantially builds climate resilience in informal settlements. CE practices—driven by local ingenuity, economic necessity, and social networks—directly and indirectly strengthen housing durability, social cohesion, and economic adaptability. The theoretical contribution lies in bridging informal settlement and CE literature in a Global South context. Resilience in informal settings arises from endogenous circular systems operating parallel to or without formal governance. Policy implications include: (1) recognizing and supporting informal recycling networks; (2) promoting awareness via trusted local channels; (3) providing minimal infrastructure (e.g., local collection points); and (4) revising building codes to incentivize CE-compliant, climate-adaptive practices. In conclusion, CE in Mashhad's informal settlements is not a deficient formal model but a context-appropriate, effective mechanism for confronting climate adversity.
 
Funding
There is no funding support.
 
Authors’ Contribution
Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved the content of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none.
 
Conflict of Interest
Authors declared no conflict of interest.
 
Acknowledgments
 We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper.

Keywords

References

  1. Adegun, O. B. (2023). Flood-related challenges and impacts within coastal informal settlements: A case from Lagos, Nigeria. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 15(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2022.2159415
  2. Aghajani, H., Razzaghian, F., & Ghazi, R. (2024). Identifying factors influencing the formation and growth of informal settlements in Mashhad (Case study: Seyedi, Khajeh Rabi, Ghal'e Sakhteman, and Jaddeh Qadim Ghochan areas). Geography and Development, 22(77), 31-54. https://doi.org/10.22111/gdij.2024.8681 [In Persian]
  3. Agyabeng, A.N., Peprah, A.A., Mensah, J.K., & Mensah, E.A. (2022). Informal settlement and urban development discourse in the Global South: Evidence from Ghana. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift-Norwegian Journal of Geography, 76(4), 242-253. https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2022.2113428
  4. Akhimien, N.G., Latif, E., & Hou, S.S. (2020). Application of circular economy principles in buildings: A systematic review. Journal of Building Engineering, 38, 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.102041
  5. Alene, E.T. (2022). Determinant factors for the expansion of informal settlement in Gondar city, Northwest Ethiopia. Journal of Urban Management, 11(3), 321-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jum.2022.04.005
  6. Ali Esmaeili, Z., & Sobhanifard, Y. (2025). Leadership style model for commercial supply chain transformation based on capabilities 5.0: Sustainability and circular economy. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 1-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-025-00710-4
  7. Ampofo, J.A., Iddrisu, A., Arfasa, G.F., Mantey, I., & Aniah, E. (2024). Causes of informal settlement in Africa: A systematic review. Adrri Journal of Contemporary African Development, 1(1), 1-18. https://www.academia.edu/117464757/Causes_of_Informal_Settlement_in_Africa_A_systematic_review
  8. Atkinson, C.L. (2024). Informal settlements: A new understanding for governance and vulnerability study. Urban Science, 8(4), 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8040158
  9. Baghban, S., & Minaei, M. (2023). Spatial analysis of social resilience in suburbs of Mashhad based on multi-criteria spatial decision support system (MC-SDSS). Scientific-Research Quarterly of Geographical Data (SEPEHR), 32(125), 143-161. https://doi.org/10.22131/sepehr.2023.545658.2834 [In Persian]
  10. Barros, M.V., Salvador, R., Francisco, G., Carlos, A., & Piekarski, C. (2021). Circular economy as a driver to sustainable businesses. Cleaner Environmental Systems, 2, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cesys.2020.100006
  11. Bertaud, A. (2021). Order without design: How markets shape cities. Town and Regional Planning, 79, 2-5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2399808320902312
  12. Bettencourt, L.M., & Marchio, N. (2025). Infrastructure deficits and informal settlements in sub-Saharan Africa. Nature, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09465-2
  13. Bjørnbet, M.M., Skaar, C., Fet, A.M., & Schulte, K. (2021). Circular economy in manufacturing companies: A review of case study literature. Journal of Cleaner Production, 294, 268-280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126268
  14. Boanada-Fuchs, A., Kuffer, M., & Samper, J. (2024). A global estimate of the size and location of informal settlements. Urban Science, 8(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8010018
  15. Chen, C.W. (2020). Improving circular economy business models: Opportunities for business and innovation: A new framework for businesses to create a truly circular economy. Johnson Matthey Technology Review, 64(1), 48-58. https://doi.org/10.1595/205651320X15710564137538
  16. Clube, R.K., & Tennant, M. (2020). The circular economy and human needs satisfaction: Promising the radical, delivering the familiar. Ecological Economics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2020.106772
  17. Cociña, C., & Landesman, T. (2025). Rethinking urban tenure in the Global South: The role of local institutions. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 49(2), 145-166.
  18. Collins, P.Y., Sinha, M., Concepcion, T., Patton, G., Way, T., McCay, L., ... & Zeitz, L. (2024). Making cities mental health friendly for adolescents and young adults. Nature, 627(8002), 137-148. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-07005-4
  19. Davoudi, S., Brooks, E., & Mehmood, A. (2013). Evolutionary resilience and strategies for climate adaptation. Planning Practice & Research, 28(3), 307-322. https://doi.org/10.1080/02697459.2013.787695
  20. De Soto, H. (1989). The other path. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ed48/ad31ae1779a3dce330c1afdfe152e1f7fc55.pdf
  21. Deputy of Planning and Human Capital Development of Mashhad Municipality. (2021). Planning and development. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from https://planning.mashhad.ir/ [In Persian]
  22. Deputy of Planning and Human Capital Development, Mashhad Municipality. (2022). Official portal. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from https://planning.mashhad.ir/ [In Persian]
  23. Dodman, D., Archer, D., Mayr, M., & Engindeniz, E. (2018). Pro-poor climate action in informal settlements. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat. https://unhabitat.org/pro-poor-climate-action-in-informal-settlement
  24. Dovey, K., van Oostrum, M., Chatterjee, I., & Shafique, T. (2020). Towards a morphogenesis of informal settlements. Habitat International, 104, 102240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2020.102240
  25. Eskandari Dorbati, Z., Javaheripour, M., & Torkaman, F. (2022). Land ownership and construction of informal settlements in Iran (1978-2021). The Journal of Community Development (Rural-Urban), 14(1), 305-331. https://doi.org/10.22059/jrd.2022.345452.668743 [In Persian]
  26. European Parliament. (2023). Circular economy: Definition, importance and benefits. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/en/article/20151201STO05603/circular-economy-definition-importance-and-benefits
  27. Evans, B.E., Huizink, A.C., Greaves-Lord, K., Tulen, J.H.M., Roelofs, K., van der Ende, J., & Santana, G.L. (2020). Urbanicity, biological stress system functioning and mental health in adolescents. PLOS ONE, 15(3), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228659
  28. Geels, F.W. (2011). The multi-level perspective on sustainability transitions: Responses to seven criticisms. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 1(1), 24-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2011.02.002
  29. Geissdoerfer, M., Savaget, P., Bocken, N., & Hultink, E.J. (2017). The circular economy - A new sustainability paradigm? Journal of Cleaner Production, 143, 757-768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048
  30. Geissdoerfer, M., Vladimirova, D., & Evans, S. (2018). Sustainable business model innovation: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 198, 401-416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.240
  31. Giddens, A. (1984). Elements of the theory of structuration. In Practicing history: New directions in historical writing after the linguistic turn (pp. 119-140). https://books.google.com/books?id=jdphGynmCo8C
  32. Grafstrom, J., & Aasma, S. (2021). Breaking circular economy barriers. Journal of Cleaner Production, 292, 2-18. https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org
  33. Hart, K. (1973). Informal income opportunities and urban employment in Ghana. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 11(1), 61-89. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00008089
  34. Heinzlef, C., Robert, B., Hémond, Y., & Serre, D. (2020). Operating urban resilience strategies to face climate change and associated risks: Some advances from theory to application in Canada and France. Cities, 104, 102762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102762
  35. Hossain, M.S. (2021). Exploring the architectural dimensions of vulnerability: A case of the participatory upgradation in informal settlement at Talaimari, Rajshahi. Journal of Engineering Science, 12(2), 29-46. https://doi.org/10.3329/jes.v12i2.54629
  36. Iran Urban Regeneration Company. (2025). Report on informal settlements of Mashhad metropolis [In Persian].
  37. Islamic Parliament Research Center (IPRC). (2022). Marginalization (informal settlement) in Iran: Approaches, policies, and measures. Tehran, Iran. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from [In Persian]
  38. Kheiroddin, R., & Salahimoghadam, A. (2021). The empowerment of informal settlements by moving from the need-based to asset-based approach (Case study of Farahzad, one of the Tehran's neighborhoods). Quarterly Journals of Urban and Regional Development Planning, 6(17), 29-58. https://doi.org/10.22054/urdp.2021.59544.1304 [In Persian]
  39. Kirchherr, J., Reike, D., & Hekkert, M. (2017). Conceptualizing the circular economy: An analysis of 114 definitions. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 127, 221-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005
  40. Lawson, A.J., Kalasz, K., Runge, M.C., Schwarzer, A.C., Stantial, M.L., Woodrey, M., & Lyons, J.E. (2022). Application of qualitative value of information to prioritize uncertainties about eastern black rail population recovery. Conservation Science and Practice, 4(7), e12732. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12732
  41. Mahabir, R., Crooks, A., Croitoru, A., & Agouris, P. (2016). The study of slums as social and physical constructs: Challenges and emerging research opportunities. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 3(1), 399-419. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2016.1229130
  42. Maleki, M., & Mosavi, M.N. (2021). Empowerment of informal settlements with emphasis on indicators of good urban governance (Case study: Informal neighborhoods of Ilam city). Journal of Sustainable Urban & Regional Development Studies (JSURDS), 2(1), 37-58. [In Persian]
  43. Marks, G., & Hooghe, L. (2004). Contrasting visions of multi-level governance. In Multi-level governance (p. 30). https://doi.org/10.1093/0199259259.003.0002
  44. Mashhad Municipality. (2022). Selected demographic indicators of Mashhad city derived from the 2016 population and housing census, Statistical Center of Iran [In Persian].
  45. Meerow, S., Newell, J.P., & Stults, M. (2016). Defining urban resilience: A review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 147, 38-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.11.011
  46. Merli, R., Preziosi, M., & Acampora, A. (2017). How do scholars approach the circular economy? A systematic literature review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 178, 703-722. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1363/1/012005
  47. Moreno, J., Ormaz, M., Alvarez, M.J., & Jac, C. (2021). Advancing circular economy performance indicators and their application in Spanish companies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 279, 605-617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123605
  48. Mousavizadeh, S.M., Nayebzadeh, S., Hataminasab, S.H., & Tabatabaienasab, Z. (2023). Circular economy and fashion industry: Drawing a scientific map of international research in the reference database Web of Science. Journal of Textile Science and Technology, 12(3), 32-54. https://doi.org/20.1001.1.21517162.1402.12.3.4.7 [In Persian]
  49. Nassar, D.M., & Elsayed, H.G. (2018). From informal settlements to sustainable communities. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 57(4), 2367-2376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.09.004
  50. Norouzi Ajirloo, R., Soleymanpor, M., & Movahed, S.M.R. (2023). Exploring the impact of circular economy on boosting the economic viability of marginal areas of Tabriz considering the mediating role of social entrepreneurship. Journal of Geography and Regional Development, 21(2), 347-373. https://doi.org/10.22067/jgrd.2023.84462.1331 [In Persian]
  51. Oraiopoulos, A., Wieser, M., Verdiere, M., Lambert, R., Fennell, P., & Ruyssevel, P. (2025). Improving habitability in informal settlements in the Global South: Exploring the impact of community urban green infrastructure on outdoor heat stress. Building and Environment, 113787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113787
  52. Ouma, S., Beltrame, D.C., Mitlin, D., & Chitekwe-Biti, B. (2024). Informal settlements: Domain report (ACRC Working Paper 2024-09). Manchester, UK: African Cities Research Consortium, The University of Manchester. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4765001
  53. Rahnama, M.R., Ahmadian, M.A., & Mohammadian, M. (2012). Urban management and organization of informal settlements: Case study of Kuye Nohdarreh, a suburb of Mashhad. Journal of Geography and Regional Development, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.22067/geography.v10i18.17372 [In Persian]
  54. Rezaie, S., & Vanhuyse, F. (2025). Urban circularity in Latin America and the Caribbean: A comparative case study of Bogotá and Mexico City. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 5, 6275-6303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-025-00554-y
  55. Roy, A. (2005). Urban informality: Toward an epistemology of planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 71(2), 147-158. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360508976689
  56. Rybski, D., & González, M.C. (2022). Cities as complex systems—Collection overview. PLOS ONE, 17(2), e0262964. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262964
  57. Sarvar, H., & Aminzadeh, S. (2019). Explaining causes of the formation of informal settlements and providing optimal solutions to organize them (Case study: Boukan-Aliabad neighborhood). Geography and Human Relationships, 2(3), 17-42. https://doi.org/20.1001.1.26453851.1398.2.3.2.4 [In Persian]
  58. Satterthwaite, D., Archer, D., Colenbrander, S., Dodman, D., Hardoy, J., Mitlin, D., & Patel, S. (2020). Building resilience to climate change in informal settlements. One Earth, 2(2), 143-156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.02.002
  59. Scoones, I. (1999). New ecology and the social sciences: What prospects for a fruitful engagement? Annual Review of Anthropology, 28(1), 479-507. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.479
  60. Shahdekar, F., Torabi, T., & Rahnama Roodposhti, F. (2022). Analysis of effective factors on development of circular economy in Iran. Iranian Economic Development Analyses, 8(1), 17-42. https://doi.org/10.22051/ieda.2021.34959.1265 [In Persian]
  61. Shahdekar, F., Torabi, T., & Rahnama Roudposhti, F. (2023). Providing a circular economy business model for knowledge-based companies. Journal of Technology Growth, 19(75), 33- https://doi.org/10.61186/jstpi.37987.19.75.33 [In Persian]
  62. Shand, W., & Ndezi, T. (2025). Community-led climate adaptation in informal settlements. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/43146
  63. Sharifi, S., Zeyari, K., & Khatibi, M. (2024). Spatial-locative organization strategies of informal settlements (Case study: Murad Ab Karaj Hill). Safe City, 7(4), 51-68. https://doi.org/10.22034/ispdrc.2024.2026406.1094 [In Persian]
  64. Statistical Center of Iran. (2025). Population and housing census. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from https://amar.org.ir/population-and-housing-census#app3146 [In Persian]
  65. Swyngedouw, E. (2006). Circulations and metabolisms: (Hybrid) natures and (cyborg) cities. Science as Culture, 15(2), 105-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/09505430600707970
  66. Triandafyllidou, A., Moghadam, A., Kelly, M., & Şahin-Mencütek, Z. (2024). Migration and cities: An introduction. In Migration and cities: Conceptual and policy advances (pp. 1-18). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55680-7_1
  67. Umar, T. (2020). A comparative study of MSW to emery in Oman. In Biotechnological applications of biomass. Winchester, UK: IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93745
  68. UN-DESA. (2019). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision (ST/ESA/SER.A/420). New York, NY: United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/desa/2018-revision-world-urbanization-prospects
  69. UNDP. (2021). Climate change: Challenges and responses. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from https://www.undp.org/georgia/publications/climate-change-challenges-and-responses
  70. UN-Habitat. (2017). New Urban Agenda (A/RES/71/256). Quito, Ecuador: United Nations.
  71. UN-Habitat. (2022a). Gender-responsive urban planning and design. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme. https://unhabitat.org/gender-responsive-urban-planning-and-design
  72. UN-Habitat. (2022b). Global action plan (GAP) launch: Accelerating for transforming informal settlements and slums by 2030. Retrieved from www.unhabitat.org
  73. UN-Habitat. (2022c). World cities report 2022: Envisaging the future of cities. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme. https://unhabitat.org/world-cities-report-2022-envisaging-the-future-of-cities
  74. UN-Habitat. (2025). From housing informality to adequate housing: Background paper and draft recommendations. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme. https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2025/06/informal_settlements_-_background_paper_and_draft_recommendations.pdf
  75. United Nations. (2018). World urbanization prospects: Key facts. New York, NY: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.
  76. Vasseur, L., & Jones, M. (2015). Adaptation and resilience in the face of climate change: Protecting the conditions of emergence through good governance. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN-Swedish Biodiversity Centre. https://www.preventionweb.net/publication/documents-and-publications/adaptation-and-resilience-face-climate-change
  77. Vearey, J., Thomson, K., Sommers, T., & Sprague, C. (2017). Analysing local-level responses to migration and urban health in Hillbrow: The Johannesburg Migrant Health Forum. BMC Public Health, 17(3), 427. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4352-2
  78. Voyatzis-Bouillard, D., & Kelman, I. (2021). Do climate change interventions impact the determinants of health for Pacific Island peoples? A literature review. The Contemporary Pacific, 33(2), 466-496. https://doi.org/10.1353/cp.2021.0039
  79. World Bank. (2022). Informal settlements in Romania: Situational analysis. Retrieved April 15, 2025, from https://www.worldbank.org
  80. World Bank. (2023). Urban heat in South Asia: Integrating people and place in adapting to rising temperatures. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org
  81. Zhang, A., Zhang, C., Munir, H., & Seuring, S. (2025). Circular economy policies in China and Europe: A systematic literature review. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-025-00689-y
Journal of Geography and Spatial Development
Volume 2, Issue 3
November 2025
Pages 69-89

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics