An Analysis of the Concept of Social Capital Based on People's Attitudes with Emphasis on Spatial Differences: A case study of Rural Districts of Kangavar County

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Department of Human Geography and Planning, Faculty of Geography, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

2 Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

3 Department of Business Management, Faculty of Management and Economics, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran

10.22098/gsd.2025.17770.1091

Abstract

A B S T R A C T
Social capital is a key concept in community development, referring to the facilitation of relationships among individuals to achieve common goals, and is shaped by their social attitudes and behaviors. The present study aims to examine the relationship between individuals' attitudes and the level of social capital in the rural districts of Kangavar County. The research method is a survey, and the statistical population includes the rural districts of Kangavar County. The sample size, determined using Cochran’s formula, consists of 492 respondents. A cluster sampling method was used, and data were collected through a researcher-made questionnaire. The findings revealed that individuals’ attitudes toward social interactions vary across different districts. In the rural districts of Qazvineh and Fash, attitudes are primarily based on self-interest and align with the second stage of Kohlberg's moral development theory, indicating a low level of social capital. In contrast, the districts of Karkhaneh, Kermarjan, and Dahler mostly correspond to the third stage of Kohlberg's model, where individuals exhibit a community-oriented outlook, prioritizing collective interests over individual ones. In these areas, the level of social capital is moderate, and according to Putnam’s perspective, elements such as trust, social networks, and social norms have been partially established. The results suggest that social capital reflects the ethical and social attitudes of residents, and its enhancement requires strengthening the sense of belonging, collective responsibility, and active participation at the community level.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The concept of social capital is a relatively recent notion within the field of social sciences. Its development can be divided into three historical periods. The first period spans from the beginning of the last century until 1980. The second occurred during the 1980s and 1990s, when Pierre Bourdieu (1986), James Coleman (1988), and Robert Putnam (1995) expanded the concept and became its principal theorists. Finally, from the 1990s onward, numerous researchers became interested in social capital, attempting to clarify its content and extend its application across various disciplines, such as economics, psychology, health, and education. The first person to use the term “social capital” was education specialist Lida J. Hanifan (1916), who described it as encompassing elements of daily life, such as goodwill, friendship, mutual empathy, and the breadth of social connections. In 1961, economist Jane Jacobs (1992) defined social capital as the existence and functioning of social networks in major U.S. cities, considering it the true wealth of these cities in relation to their economic development. In the 1970s, economist Greg Loury (1977) applied the term to the study of social inequalities among different ethnic-racial groups, defining it as family networks and social relationships that can enhance individual knowledge and capabilities. According to Loury, social connections determine individuals’ access to education, employment, and other social benefits. Contemporary definitions primarily focus on social interactions, conceptualizing social capital as the set of rules, norms, obligations, reciprocal relationships, and trust embedded in social relationships, social structures, and institutional hierarchies that enable members of a society to achieve both collective and individual goals (Coleman, 1988; Narayan, 1998).
 
Methodology
The present study aims to analyze the status of social capital in rural areas based on individuals’ attitudes. The statistical population consists of residents of villages in Kangavar County, with a sample size of 494 determined according to Cochran’s formula. A multi-stage cluster sampling method was employed, clustering villages according to social and economic indicators and level of development. To measure the variables and collect data, a questionnaire was used, consisting of two sections. The first section, measuring social capital, was designed on a 5-point Likert scale. The second section assessed attitudes based on Kohlberg’s theory. Given Kohlberg’s cognitive orientation, moral development is closely related to cognitive growth. To measure individuals’ attitudes and tendencies according to Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, a researcher-designed questionnaire was utilized.
 
Results and Discussion
The findings indicate that the status of social capital at the sub-district level is significantly associated with individuals’ attitudes toward various social, economic, institutional, and infrastructural dimensions. Statistical analyses reveal that the Karkhaneh and Kermajan sub-districts exhibit higher levels across the four indices, reflecting attitudes rooted in respect for law and public values. In contrast, the Fesh and Qazvineh sub-districts have the lowest levels of social capital, with social interactions primarily governed by reciprocal-exchange and self-centered attitudes. Such orientations shape social actions based on individual rather than collective interests, posing a serious obstacle to strengthening social trust, cohesion, and public participation. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirms significant differences among sub-districts in the studied indices, particularly in social and economic indicators, where the differences are both substantial and statistically significant. Post hoc tests further demonstrate that most differences are significant between Karkhaneh and Kermajan versus the other sub-districts (especially Fesh and Qazvineh), placing the former two in a distinct group regarding attitude and social capital.
 
Conclusion
From a theoretical perspective, these findings align with Kohlberg’s moral development framework. In sub-districts with higher social capital, attitudes are more grounded in ethical principles and institutionalized rules, whereas in weaker sub-districts, actions remain largely oriented toward reciprocal rewards and punishments. Specifically, residents of Qazvineh and Fesh sub-districts exhibit attitudes in social interactions consistent with Kohlberg’s second stage, prioritizing personal gain as the criterion for right and wrong. Their actions consistently prioritize self-interest, reflecting a low level of social capital. Through a continuous process of reinforcing stage-two attitudes, individuals in these sub-districts behave as discrete, isolated actors within the community. Their behavior and decisions are guided by a set of beliefs characterized by transactional individualism and relative evaluation, whereby personal needs and interests take precedence over collective ones, marginalizing social welfare within these communities.
 
Funding
There is no funding support.
 
Authors’ Contribution
Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved thecontent of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none.
 
Conflict of Interest
Authors declared no conflict of interest.
 
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper.

Keywords

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Journal of Geography and Spatial Development
Volume 2, Issue 2
June 2026
Pages 79-94

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